Child abuse and neglect Essay Example for Free

Child aversion and neglect Es severaliseINTRODUCTIONChild abuse and neglect can produce serious and long-wearing dam senesce. The range of actions classified as baby bird abuse or neglect is constantly changing as a result of social and economic conditions, semipolitical ideology, advances in medicine, improvements in communication and melding of cultures. Today, child abuse and neglect is widely recognized as a major social trouble and policy materialization throughout much of the world. During the last 50 years, the United States and many of the worlds nations support responded to child abuse and neglect with legislative efforts, a con reverberateation of programs and interventions, and organizational efforts to identify, respond to and pr til nowt the abuse and neglect of dependent children. Today, there atomic number 18 innumerable local, national and international organizations, professional societies and advocacy groups devoted to preventing and tr moot in child abuse and neglect.Significance of the StudyOne case related to child abuse and neglect is pedophilia. Pedophilia affects children of a authorized switch on and within a certain age, usually under the age of 15 or 16 years. Most pedophiles are not violent toward children, instead leading and enticing children to volitionally perform knowledgeable acts, although some are violent to the point of rape and murder. In 1974, the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment act was passed which put forwards federal reinforcement at the state level for prevention and response to child abuse. With this act, many states strengthened their response to child abuse and established child statutes in which parents whitethorn be prosecuted for abusing their children. Regardless of the legal response on pedophilia, it is clear that much cases never get ins to the attention of the criminal justice system and is, unfortunately, never dealt with. This serious and warning signal case should be fully characterized and understood for the good of the bring uped children, especially the adolescents.What is Phedophilia?As a medical diagnosis, pedophilia is typically defined as a psychiatric disorder in adults or late adolescents characterized by a primary or exclusive intimate interest in prepubescent children (generally age 13 years or younger). In contemporary Western societies, the subject is highly contentious and fraught with strong feelings. The strength of the feelings is readily explained by concern for the welfare of the children and for their healthy, unimpeded development. The child must be at least five years younger in the case of adolescent pedophiles. However, the term pedophile is often used to refer to any adult who is versedly attracted to males or females below the legal age of consent.While there is considerable psychological and sociological literature about pedophilia, philosophers resolveing on the philosophy of sex have transgressn relatively little atten tion to the subject. As pedophilia is seen as a paradigmatic case of cozy perversion and is generally viewed with strong moral revulsion, it might have been expected to generate more philosophical interest. Experts believe that well-nigh pedophiles are males. Some female adults are sexually attracted to boys or girls, but these children are usually at or beyond the age of puberty. Sometimes, however, females sexually abuse children in concert with males, or they will knowingly allow males to abuse their own children or opposite children.This is more likely to occur if the women are abusing drugs and/or alcohol. Pedophiles may believe that their behavior is normal and that it helps teach children how to become loving and affectionate. Such individuals avoid such words as pedophilia, preferring to use such name as adult-child sex. They believe that others who do not understand their behavior are unreasonably rigid. Some organizations of pedophiles claim large memberships and ac tively support the practice of pedophilia. Pedophiles may fail to consider the improvident- or long-term consequences of their actions for example, in one case, a pedophile was told by a child whom he had met on the Internet that her pay off was a police officer, yet he molested the girl anyway. Most studies of pedophilia are performed on people in jail or prison, and it is as well full-strength that many acts of this are never reported.Ephebophilia Its OppositeEphebophilia is a variety of male homosexuality. Ephebophiles are attracted to post-pubertal, sexually mature youths. They are sexually attracted to the fully developed, vigorous masculinity of adolescence. In the narrow finger, pedophilia refers only to sexual attraction of adults to pre-pubescent and sex with them. When the term is used in this sense, ephebophilia is not included as one of pedophilias varieties, but rather distinguished from it, the end of puberty providing the line of demarcation.Characteristics of P edophilesPedophiles are age and sex peculiar(prenominal). They will normally prefer children of a certain sex and within a certain age. Child molesters fall into several categories. One is the fixated pedophile who never moves beyond the attraction he or she mat for children when he or she was a child. The regressed pedophile often turns to children in response to stressful life events. Although intimately pedophiles do not physically harm children, the mysoped makes the ritual connection between fatal sexual violence and someoneal gratification. The sadistic pedophile abducts children for the purpose of torturing and eventually killing them to achieve sexual gratification. Pedophiles come from a variety of backgrounds. Some are well educated, while others are illiterate. Many were not close up to their fathers, and many came from homes where alcohol was a problem for at least one parent (usually the father). Pedophiles often have weak verbal skills, and almost 9 out of 10 fel t especially close to their mothers.The short size of the child provides the pedophile with an opportunity to exert power and authority. At the same time, the sex of the child has little to do with the adult sexual preference of the molester. For example, a male pedophile may be very interested in sex with boys ages 9 or 10 years old, but at the same time be married and consider himself homosexual. Around 80% have been documented as having a history of childhood sexual abuse. The pedophile is known to the child in 90% of cases, 15% or more are relatives of the victim. Homosexual pedophilia does not differ from heterosexual pedophilia. Research on the victim points out that most are female and the molester is usually known. However when a male is the victim, the molester may be a stranger. The degree of the pedophilia sexual act can vary ranging from simply observing the child, to touching, undressing, exposing of own genitalia, fondling, and sexual intercourse.II. CAUSES OF PEDOPHI LIAThe causes of pedophilia that have been researched remain unclear. It has been suggested that the pedophilia represents a regression or reversion at an earlier level of sexual development which resulted in an adult repetitive pattern of inappropriate sexual behavior. Therefore, it is suggested that the pedophile returns to a sexual habit that was developed early in life. It is also theorized that the pedophile is expressing revenge regarding a childhood trauma. It is also said that pedophilia is caused by a sweet sexual arousal to conditioned objects.The following are identified as possible causes of pedophilia1. Parental punishment of a small boy for sustaining an erecting2. Sexual abuse of a young male3. Fear of sexual performance or intimacy4. Psychosexual trauma5. Socio-cultural and/or psychological factors6. profuse alcohol intakePrevious studies have shown that same-sex child molester is higher than opposite-sex offenders, with offenders against boys being at a higher ri sk for delinquency, compared to offenders against boys. The number of prior offenses and the intensity of the fixation on children as sexual objects are factors that predict abuse. some other study was done everyplace 111 child molesters.Child molesters included same-sex, opposite-sex, and mixed groups all responded to stimuli of specific ages and sexes. Findings showed that the degree of sexual reoccupation with children, paraphilia, and number of prior sexual offences were predictors of sexual delinquency. The causes of pedophilia are unknown, but most scientists believe that conditioning in one form or another is involved. The motivation/ learning model can account for the development of pedophilia and can explain its distribution over the life span.A Person to be Declared as PedophileThe diagnosed criteria for a pedophile are as follows1. Over a period of at least 6 months, recurrent, intense sexually arousing fantasies, sexual urges, or behaviors including sexual activity wit h a prepubescent child or children (generally age 13 years or younger) 2. The person has acted on these sexual urges, or the sexual urges or fantasies cause marked distress or interpersonal difficulty 3. The person is at least 16 years of age and at least 5 years older than the child or children molestedIII. EFFECTS OF PEDOPHILIAThe personal effects of pedophilia to an individual, especially to those who are at a young age, include initial fear, anxiety, depression, anger, aggression and sexually inappropriate behavior. Boys have the same patterns of distress as girls, with symptoms such as fears, recreation disturbances, and distractedness however, boys tend to be less symptomatic than girls. Additional long-term consequences include self-destructive behavior, isolation, low self-esteem, trust issues, fondness abuse, and sexual problems. People who have a history of childhood sexual abuse have increased rates of depressive disorders, anxiety disorders, and alcohol and drug abuse. There is often an increase in psychopathology among victims of childhood sexual abuse and this psychopathology is manifested at times in the form of pedophilia or other inappropriate behaviors with young children. Victims of childhood sexual abuse are more likely than nonvictims of that abuse to manifest sexual hyper-arousal and sexually aggressive behavior with a tendency to repeat and reenact sexual victimizations as adults.Physical priceInjuryDepending on the age and size of the child, and the degree of force used, pedophilia may cause internal lacerations and bleeding. In dreadful cases, damage to internal organs may occur, which, in some cases, may cause death. Herman-Giddens found six certain and six probable cases of death referable to child sexual abuse in North Carolina between 1985 and 1994. The victims ranged in age from 2 months to 10 years. Causes of death included trauma to the genitalia or rectum and sexual mutilation.InfectionsPedophile acts may cause infections and sexually transmitted diseases. Depending on the age of the child, due to a lack of sufficient vaginal fluid, chances of infections are higher. Vaginitis has also been reported.Neurological DamageResearch has shown that traumatic stress, including stress caused by sexual abuse, causes notable changes in brain functioning and development. A study was done on women who took SAT and it was found that the self-reported math Scholastic Aptitude Test scores of the sample of women with a history of repeated sexual abuse were significantly bring down than the self-reported math SAT scores of the non-abused sample. Because the abused subjects verbal SAT scores were high, it was hypothesized that the low math SAT scores could stem from a defect in hemispheric integration. A strong association between short term memory impairments for all categories tested (verbal, visual, and global) and the duration of the abuse was also found.Psychological DamagePedophilia can result in both(prenomina l) short-term and long-term harm, including psychopathology in later life. Psychological, emotional, physical, and social effects include depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety, eating disorders, poor self-esteem, dissociative and anxiety disorders general psychological distress and disorders such as somatization, neurosis, degenerative pain, sexualized behavior, school/learning problems and behavior problems including substance abuse, self-destructive behavior, brute cruelty, crime in adulthood and the worst, suicide. Long term negative effects on development leading to repeated or additional victimization in adulthood are also associated with child sexual abuse.There are two contrasting adaptive styles in sexual abuse victims. One adaption schema seeks mastery through active repetition of the trauma, while the other adaption copes by avoiding sexual stimuli. Victims of childhood sexual abuse may exhibit mood disorders including chronic anxiety, depression, delayed post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety attacks, and hysterical symptoms. Victims of sexual abuse may also experience difficulties in intimate relationships and express a sense of alienation, isolation, stigmatization, and a negative self-image. There is a wide variety of psychological conditions that have been documented in sexually abused children, with a higher-than-average tendency toward repetition of either being victimized at the hands of an adult or victimization of children.Arguments that Aroused about PedophiliaIn our type of society, pedophile sex is considered both a moral offense and a crime that deserves a truly, serious punishment. There are two further arguments against pedophilia behind both its moral disapprobation and legal prohibition. First, sex with minors is wrong because it is non-consensual second, it is harmful to those who are concerned. Both of these arguments have been questioned throughout time. Now, lets look on the way a pedophile is conceive d by the public. The pedophile is often visualized as a dirty old man, a stranger to his victims, who forces himself on children and has a matured sexual intercourse, thus putting them through a frightening and painful experience and inflicting serious and long-term damages on them.The drastic effects of the cases explain why pedophiles are usually called child molesters, and why pedophilia seems to be the most hated of all the sexual variations. What is true is that most pedophiles are men but the majority is young or middle-aged. More often than not, they are not strangers they are likely to be a family, neighbor, or other adults that are known to the victim. The harmful effects of pedophilia on a childs sexual, emotional and personality development are equable a matter of researches and debates rather than an authorized fact.IV. EXAMPLES OF CASES CONCERNING PEDOPHILIA* A 65-year-old youth minister of the First Baptist Church from Sinton, Texas who admitted to molesting a 6-year- old girl shocked a crowd of followers. The story saw this pedophilic Baptist minister through his 37-year jail sentence. I then hooked my thumbs in her waist, the minister said, and put my hands over her groin area, on the outside of her clothing. The first couple of times, she did not say anything, the minister continued. She was more interested in driving. But the second time, when I told her we needed to go home, and she slid over to the passenger seat, the look on her face killed my soul. I felt great remorse for having taken advantage of this child.* A glam-rocker Gary Glitter was convicted of possessing child pornography, but positive child abuse allegations against him were dismissed because his accuser had sold her story in a newspaper. Glitter seems to be a prime example of the predatory pedophile, continually unrepentant, even after going 27 months of imprisonment in Vietnam for offences against two girls he claimed he was teaching English, after already being permanentl y barred from Cambodia in 2002 for sex allegations. This case had led for actions to remove passports from sex offenders.* February 11, 2011 Laval police handled one of the biggest cyber pedophile cases. Sandro Tasillo, 26, is linked to internet sex crimes involving 30 young girls. Police say Tasillo would roam for underage victims on Facebook. He would offer girls money to take off their clothes in front of a webcam. But the money was never delivered, and the photos of the girls were often sold to other pedophiles. Tasillo was formally charged at the Laval courthouse. He faces a total of 40 sex charges. Police believe the 30 victims who have come forward are just the tip of the iceberg. Police are asking other potential victims to contact them as soon as possible. The probe is still ongoing.V. TREATMENT AND PREVENTION OF PEDOPHILIATreatment for pedophilia emerged as a means to prevent child molestation or as a way to reduce sexual deterioration. That is, pedophilia is treated eit her when a person wants to remedy his pedophile tendencies, or when a person has committed a sexual offense against a child and his pedophilic interests addressed to reduce sexual deterioration. This combines preference-based treatment with programs designed to manage other criminogenic needs.Treatment would change factors known to be related to sex offending. Improvement of these factors would correlate highly and negatively with recidivism. Progress in treatment technology would be reflected in greater reductions in sexual deterioration over time. Treatment outcome studies using random assignment would show greater effect, and better-implemented programs would be more successful.In the earliest stages of behavior alteration therapy, pedophiles may be narrowly viewed as being attracted to inappropriate persons. Such aversive stimuli as electric shocks have been administered to persons undergoing therapy for pedophilia. This approach has not been very successful. Another common for m of treatment for pedophilia is psychotherapy, often of many years duration. It does not have a high rate of success in inducing pedophiles to change their behavior. Pedophilia may also be treated with medications. The three classes of medications most often used to treat pedophilia are female hormones, particularly medroxyprogesterone acetate, or MPA luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonists, which include such drugs as triptorelin, leuprolide acetate, and goserelin acetate and anti-androgens, which block the uptake and metabolism of testosterone as well as reducing neckcloth levels of this hormone.Most clinical studies of these drugs have been done in Germany, where the legal system has allowed their use in treating repeat sexual offenders since the 1970s. The anti-androgens in particular have been shown to be effective in reducing the rate of recidivism. Making the molester impotent is sometimes offered as a treatment to pedophiles who are repeat offenders or who h ave pleaded unlawful to violent rape. Increasingly, pedophiles are being prosecuted under criminal statutes and being sentenced to prison terms. Imprisonment removes them from society for a period of time but does not usually remove their pedophilic tendencies. Many countries have begun to publish the names of persons being released from prison after serving time for pedophilia. Legal challenges to this practice are pending in various authorities. Some recommendations for the treatment of pedophilia are the following1. Risk assessment using a well-supported measure2. Education of the client, his spouse or partner, family members and close friends 3. Behavioral treatments targeting pedophilic sexual arousal 4. Monitoring of pedophilic clients in terms of access to child pornography, unsupervised contacts with children, and potential disinhibitors such as alcohol or drug use 5. Drug treatments targeting sex drive for higher-risk individuals 6. Cognitive-behavioral and behavioral trea tments targeting general risk factors for criminal behavior such as antisocial attitudes and beliefs, association with antisocial peers, and substance abusePreventionThe main method for preventing pedophilia is avoiding situations that may promote pedophilic acts. Children should never be allowed to engage in one-on-one situations with any adult other than their parents or trustworthy family members. Having another youth or adult as an observer provides some security for those who are concerned. Conferences and other activities can be conducted to provide privacy while still within sight of others. Children should be taught to yell or run if they are faced with an uncomfortable situation.They should also be taught that it is delicious to scream or call for help in such situations. Another basis of preventing pedophilia is education. Children must be taught to avoid situations that make them defenseless to pedophiles. Adults who work with youth must be taught to avoid situations tha t may promote pedophilia. Many states have adopted legislation that requires background investigations of any adult who works with children. These persons may be paid, such as teachers, or they may be volunteers in a youth-serving organization.VI. CONCLUSIONIt is very evident that pedophilia is a serious problem of many countries. The alarming rate of pedophile cases must serve as an eye opener to our government, for them to take a serious look and enforce laws that give legal punishment to those who are proven guilty of this crime. Our justice system must be on its track to convict the culprit. Everyone should be responsible in handling this horrible crime.Laws against child abuse and neglect should be strengthened and each one of us should be informed about the terrible effects that this crime would cause. But, let us not only put the pressure to the government in solving this problem. We, in our own families, should be the first to take extra care to our own selves. Our family sh ould be strong and open communication should be observed for the better.Help each other to protect our youth, because as the face goes, The youth is the hope of our Fatherland.B I B L I O G R A P H YAmerican Psychiatric Association. Profile of a Pedophile. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Arlington, USA American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2006. Clark, Robin. et al. The Encyclopedia of Child Abuse. New York Infobase Publishing, 1998. Flisk, Dr. elevated Louden-Hans. Sexual Abuse. Father, Deliver Us from Evil. USA By the Author, 2004. Gabbard, Glen. Summary and Recommendations on Psychological Treatments. Gabbards Treatments of Psychiatric Disorders. USA American Psychiatric Publishing, Inc., 2007. Greenberg, Jerrold. et al. The Pedophiliac. Exploring the Dimensions of valet de chambre Sexuality. Canada Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2011. Laws, D. Richard and ODonohue, William. Pedophilia Treatment. Sexual Deviance Theory, Assessment, and Treatment. USA Th e Guilford Press, 2008. Murray, David. The Homosexualization of Pedophilia. Homophobias Lust and Loathing across Time and Space. USA Duke University Press, 2009. Primoratz, Igor. Whats wrong with Pedophilia?. Ethics and Sex. London Routledge, 1999. Soble, Alan. Pedophilia. Sex from Plato to Paglia A Philosophical Encyclopedia. USA Greenwood Press, 2006. Vito, Gennaro. et al. The Criminal Justice Response. Criminology Theory, Research and Policy. Canada Jones and Bartlett Publishers, Inc., 2007. Internet Sourcesen.wikipedia.orgwww.medicinenet.comwww.minddisorders.com

Target location technology, tracking systems Essay Example for Free

Target location technology, tracking systems EssayToday there are umpteen differing forms of tracking systems that can be used to locate home runs accurately very much different to the simple procedures used on aircraft in world contend two. One of these technologies is symbology. These are imaged laid over the real world images. The images give target position and other relevant information such as the planes heading. The images change over as quickly as the real world view change, there is no visible delay as this could have fatal consequences. The target is go through and weapons can easily be necessitateed to the correct point. The guidance images are displayed in the voyages head-mounted display. These are certain at BAE systems, and their design is critical collectible to the set they are used in. The headsets are linked to a powerful and accurate computer that works very quickly to update the view almost straightaway and to give warnings about dangerous situatio ns. The Kiowa helicopter from the US Army used a symbology system that included night vision.The system recorded the mission allowing the pilot to play it back. The US Army also uses a laser as a target locator. It has been developed into a hand held laser targeting technology that doesnt stultification eyes. Currently they are largely ground based but they allow targets to be located and intensified even in the dark. This technology has been transferred onto a soldiery fighter aircraft for range finding in light and dark environments. The system also gives a range finder which can vary between the direct view and an intensified view.The system can digitally provide a magnetic compass that gives range and elevation. They are already used across the world. another(prenominal) possible technology is the use of intelligent radar systems that lock onto targets allowing missile to be guided. This technology can be found on the patriot missile, which is aimed at incoming missiles. The s ystem depends on ground-based radar that locates and tracks targets however this technology could be developed to fit on an aircraft like the sidewinder missile. This is a very great ranging and variable system.It can run automatically or an operator can intervene if necessary but these need to be very accurate due the speed the missiles travel at. The radar antenna can scan the sky, identify targets, determines aim and positioning of target, gives information and can help direct the missile to the target even when missile has been launched. Two operators watch the progress of the missiles, they can then change things if necessary such as deselecting targets. One form of missile has its witness in-built guidance computer and radar transmitter allowing it to guide itself.The technology allows targets to be located very accurately. Especially if the technology is watched over by operators such as the patriot missile radar system. The accuracy could save many lives, as civilian posit ions are less likely to be hit with the accuracy of the technology. thence military targets can be located successfully allowing for a less morbid military operation. The technology often needs much equipment that is highly developed and costly. As resources such as missiles with their built in computer are expended during war, much money is lost.In less developed countries this money would be required for other vital materials, so the technology may not be used. The wastage of materials would not be environmentally friendly. The new technology would need people to be trained to be able to operate the systems. If a person puts on a headset and does not know what the lines and boxes mean they be useless at coercive it. However the training takes time to be done safely this will cost money but is necessary for the technology to be used

Wax Descartes And The Wax Example Philosophy Essay

Wax Descartes And The Wax Example Philosophy EssayPhilosophers much(prenominal) as Rene Descartes score imagined ideas and scenarios in their heads regarding philosophy that pick up required some(a) function additional in order to be condone fit. Often, philosophers will use an example to guide others through the idea. The example is usually a hypothetical, scarce sometimes an example will be demonstrated to ensure maximum impact. Descartes uses the Wax Example in the second meditation of Meditations on First Philosophy to explain why we as thinking things argon able to know a thing even if it has been altered or changed in some way.To begin, it is essential that Descartes arise example be explained. Descartes examines a piece of climb, noting its properties. It looks, feels, and smells like climb up. Descartes then holds the piece of hardened wax next to a flame and the wax melts. He observes the wax again after it has melted and notes that it smells, looks, and feels differ ent than it just did, but it is all the same obviously wax. Even though the properties of the piece of wax had changed, we are able to shut that an object is still an object even if it has gone through change. We rely on our senses to provide us with the data that allows us to determine what a thing is, and although our senses tell us different things, our capitulums are able to take that information and determine what a thing is. Therefore, there must be something inherently indication of that thing otherwise we wouldnt be able to conclude what only it was because our senses can deceive us.Our senses are limited in that they strictly give us information about things they do not interpret that information for us. We have to appeal to the legal opinion every time we experience tender objects. We constantly go to the judgement to determine what the inherent quality of the thing is that makes it that thing. It is something that we cannot sense. There are two types of substance s in our world thinking substances and extended substances. Thinking substances are things in the judicial decision and they do not physically exist. Extended substances are also known as material substances, and they are physical in their existence. The reasons that extended substances are called such is because the essential thing about those material objects is that they take up room and have quid, therefore extending in space.The qualities of substances are also important when it comes to determining what exactly a thing is. There are two types of qualities primary and secondary. Primary qualities do not depend on the way one experiences an object. An object that has mass is always going to have mass, and your senses are not involved. A secondary quality does depend on the way one experiences an object. The information that your five senses get hold will affect the way you see the qualities. A secondary quality could be how an object looks/smells/tastes/sounds/feels to you. O ur conception of secondary qualities can sometimes be misled if we have misinterpreted a things primary qualities. If, for example, one was to take a hallucinogen and then observe a tree, one would still clearly see that the tree is do of matter and takes up space, but one might not see the tree as brown with green leaves, but rather as some sort of swirl of colors that is not a real representation of the object. The former is a primary quality and does not change even if we are experiencing it in an altered way, but the latter is a secondary and can change. The wax in question undergoes a change in all of its sensible properties, and even though all of its secondary qualities are telling our senses that it is no longer that piece of wax, our minds are able to determine through the primary qualities that it is still indeed a piece of wax.In this meditation, Descartes says, I do not grasp what this wax is through the imagination rather, I perceive it through the mind alone. In sayin g this, Descartes is showing that it is our minds that are truly recognizing things such as the piece of wax. There are certain qualities and traits of objects that we link to them in order to tell apart them. What those traits are, are separate from the object itself they are abstract and intangible. The platonic spirit of an object is what our minds use to identify an object, not our imaginations use of our senses perceptions. Descartes is not actively feeling, smelling, and visual perception the wax to determine that it is wax, but rather his mind is recognizing the platonic essence of the wax, identifying it even if it changes physically.Descartes second meditation is about more than just the wax example, but it is an important thing to be aware of, as it provides further evidence for his thoughts. Descartes says that he is a thinking thing. He determined that is something thinks, it exists- I think which agency that I must exist. This holds true, because even if you were to s ay I talk, therefore I exist that could be your senses deceiving you with I think, therefore I exist, thinking this is itself a thought, so there can never be any doubt as to whether or not I am a thinking thing. Descartes is showing us that there is a difference between minds and bodies, and that we know our own minds much better than we know any body, even our own.Through the use of the wax example, Descartes is able to explain the differences between thinking and extended substances, primary and secondary qualities, and that we have greater knowledge of minds than we do of bodies. Descartes second meditation relies on the discussion of the wax example to explain the significance of changes and how our senses and our minds can tell us two different things. In the end, it is our mind that is able to truly see the platonic essence of a thing and be able to identify it. Our senses have the ability to deceive us, making our minds the most reliable. Descartes has provided an explanatio n and example of his ideas, allowing us to see for ourselves what the mind and senses are capable of.

Masculinity In Marlowes Edward The Second Play

Masculinity In Marlowes Edward The Second PlayRenaissance plays often have the tension in the midst of order and overthrow as its underlying central issue, which is frequently expressed through the conflicts presented in love, loyalty, family transaction, g repealer issues, and politics and law and these plays attempt to reinstate order in the end by trying to dispose of those elements that cause the disruption of society. One widely celebrated author from this period, famous for his works Hero and Leander and Doctor Faustus, is Christopher Marlowe. Marlowes plays ar resembling in respect that the tension of order and disorder lies at its core, and an in depth analysis can be done of his play Edward the Second on all the previously mentioned themes. Marlowes Edward the Second questions the gender boundaries as presented in the early-modern period, and the nonions on masculinity are closely intertwined with politics in this play, which can be spy when focussing on ideas of masc ulinity with regards authority, sexuality, and women as presented in Marlowes play.Women, thus, were axiomatically sensed as cosmos subordinated to men, especially concerning the financial and legal organisation of society. As the regulation manner in which the head controls its body, the subordination of women was considered to be absolutely natural (hobby, 32). Domestically, the indicator rested with the father who was considered to be in command. Women were considered to be less sensible than men and prone to emotional outbursts, and, consequently, they required manful protection. (Traub, 129-130) According to Curtis Perry in Eros and Power in English Renaissance Drama, masculinity was stereotypically associated with rational possession and constancy (6), and to handle public orders as opposed to personal pronenesss (Shephard, 75), while effeminateness was linked to uncontrollable passion, spending to a great deal time at home, and universe dedicated to women in a subor dinate rather than mastery position (Sinfield, 88). When discovered in men, these effeminate qualities instigated the d inducefall of social structures and positions as recognized in early-modern Eng refine so, men should attempt to repudiate this effeminate behaviour and assert manliness. Furthermore, according to Stephen Orgel, manhood was not a natural condition that a flavor that had to be striven for and maintained through constant watchfulness (Orgel, 29), which was done through manuals -for example Castigliones The Book of the Courtier- that emphasized masculine behaviour wi curtilaget showing effeminate behaviour. new(prenominal)wise significant features of masculinity included fighting and violence, rivalry, uniforms, being a father, and facial hair. This last trait separated men from the boys who appear often in corporation with effeminacyand from the viewpoint of the masterful male they are both inferior (Sinfield, 103). Also, men are physically stronger than women, and in an age where there is no engineering science as existing today muscles were required for accomplishing hard, physical labour, importing in men being more dominant compared to women. Additionally, manliness generally meant hanging out with other males (Sinfield, 88) and, in the early-modern period social st talent and order were governed by these homo-social bonds between men, for everyone was defined in relation to these. The social structure was constructed round systems of patronage and condescension between men, and many institutions required men to share domestic space with one another, especially beds. The relations between master/servant, or tutor/ learner for example were often specified in terms of an idealized friendship and were essential to society. The emphasis upon the importance of manliness as a performed role and the centrality of the inter-male relations as the basis of social order places the men and the male body at the centre of society (Hattaway, 482). Nevertheless, there were exceptions regarding the general gender-roles as mentioned above. Widows, for example, had some condition in the domestic sphere and in financial businesses, because they had no man to arrange their businesses. Moreover, Queen Elizabeth was a woman with power and control, and was thus associated with masculine qualities. Although females with masculine traits were usually perceived as anomalies of society, this was not the case for Queen Elizabeth who is considered to be one of Englands most remarkable leaders.In this period, the role of a king or queen was primarily a public position, and their authority and ability to rule the soil was inextricably intertwined with their ability to govern themselves, which is a central theme understandably illustrated in Christopher Marlowes play Edward the Second. Kings were regarded as possessing ideal personal virtues that made it able for them to govern a country, which was seen as an extension of him/herself. Accor dingly, personal self-control was a reference that was emphasized, because without self-control a king/queen was unable to govern his/her country. Perry observes that a king was bestowed upon a bulk by God, and if God wishes to reward a utter(a) great deal, their ruler ordain be given the personal chaste excellence to control himself(10). This implicates that a ruler should always have the best interest of the realms people in mind, respecting traditions and regulations, for the decisions made by a particular ruler and the manner in which he performs his office effects not barely his immediate subjects, and people of all degrees of society (DiMatteo, 177). This is a notion stressed by King James VI/I in his book Basilikon DoronAs he cannot be position worthy to rule and command others, that cannot rulehis own proper affections and unreasonable appetites, so can he not be thought wordy to govern a Christian people, knowing and fearing God, that in his own person and heart, f eareth not and loveth not the Devine Majesty.(qtd. in Perry, 1)Also, there was no clear peculiarity between the kings personal life and private life, and, accordingly, the kings/ promote personal identity and morality was a public matter. Rulers were considered to be the moral compriseatives of their people, and were required to set a good exampleKings, being public persons by reason of their office and authority, are, as it were setupon a public stage, in the sight of all the people where all the beholders eyes are attentively bent to look and pry in the least circumstance of their secretest drifts. Which should make kings the more careful not to breastfeed the secretest thought in their mind, but such as in their own time they shall not be ashamed openly to avouch. (qtd. in Perry, 4)As a result, rulers had to control their feelings and personal desires for the sake of the countrys welfare and were not entitled to give up everything for, for instance, love or personal desires. T his also meant that friendships should be chosen because of their counsel, nobility, and moral wisdom rather than for any more inward or subjective reason (Perry, 4), because rulers distributed wealth and power among these friends, meaning that is was imperative that these positions of power were granted to fit individuals for the benefit of the country and its citizens. Consequently, this had to be done according to reason and not according to subjective feelings. When decisions were made according to misguided reason and passion, political shogunate was the result, for the overthrow of reason by passion leads a ruler to violate the principles of moral rule.(4) Moreover, tyranny was often seen as effeminate and associated with moral weakness (8) because it results from the rulers unfitness to control his/her aspirations. In Marlowes play, king Edward II is incapable of regulating his own desires and thoughts, and the imbalance and the violence ensued by the kings affection for Gav eston reminded an audience just how important a rulers ability of self-control is. The problem issued by the nobility in the play of Edward having Gaveston as his favourite lies mainly in Edwards decision to bypass them and to bestow to much power on someone of low birth without their consultation, which is in lines with customary political regulations, that it is possible for that person to overawe them. Laws were considered to be issued by God, and if God had treasured Gaveston to be that powerful God would have bestowed him with more power, and by granting Gaveston with that much power Edward denigrates the rest of his peers as stated by LancasterIn this play, Gaveston represents the unruly desires that peril to overturn the rational social order of society. Gaveston believes that as the personal favourite of the king he will be empowered in such a way that His knee shall bow to none but the King. (1.19) However, Edwards peers insist that the king must behave according to his i mpersonal duty to the publics need by suppressing his own longing and desires and acting out of reason. Mortimer senior emphasizes this need to conform to public wishes in the play when stating If you love us, my lord, hate Gaveston. (1.79) Here, Mortimer senior asks the king to distinguish between two kinds of affection. On the one hand, there is his personal love and intimacy he feels for Gaveston, which is ascribed to passion and personal desire. Contrastively, there is an impersonal kind of love dictated by the public status in moral reason namely the affection a king is required to hold for his peers. So, Mortimer senior asks his king to cut off his personal feelings for his duty and honour to the public. (Perry, 27) Nevertheless, Edward II is unable to accomplish this stating I will have Gaveston (1.95) solely because he loves me more in all the world.(4.77). The result is disorder and chaos through which Mortimer Junior with the help of most of the other peers and Isabella obtain power. However, Mortimer Junior is revealed to be a figure of passionate political opposition chasing his own passions and desire a tyrant who revels in his unrestrained power planning to advance his friendsEssentially, Mortimer Junior can be likened in the end to how Gaveston began in the play as a figure representing passionate misrule, characterized by political ambition. Nevertheless, Valerie Traub suggests that the conclusions of these kind of early-modern plays tend to restore the social order. And because chaos is often expressed as an inversion of gender hierarchy, the reconstruction of order tends to reinstate masculine authority. (132). In Marlowes play Edward III represents this masculine authoritative figure, and he demonstrates his competence through his willingness to punish Mortimer Junior and -more importantly- his own mother, showing that he is able to subordinate personal affections to that of public duty in contrast to his father Edward II.Edwards politic al inabilities are inextricably connected with his sexuality, and his inability to handle it accordingly causes the civil rebellion in the play, and, ultimately, his death. Male affectivity and the perception on sexuality in the early-modern period is difficult to describe, because in a culture were intense male friendships and shared beds were the norm- it is almost impossible to distinguish between friends and lovers.(Hattaway, 482) Accusations of being a sodomite did occur however, this generally did not refer to explicit sexual acts but was used to accuse somebody for immoral behaviour and acting out of unruly desires. Moreover, sexual orientation was not perceived as being a significant part of someones character, but according to Perry homoerotic desire was typically thought of as something that anybody could feel but that nobody should give expression to.(7) Nevertheless, buggery was considered to be a crime punishable by death in this period. Sex was created by God for repl ication and not for recreational purposes, making buggery a sin against God. In Edward the Second, the kings homoerotic consanguinity with his favourite Gaveston is made explicitly clear from the extend where Gaveston compares their relationship to that of the classical story of Hero and Leander, for Leanders nightly meeting with Hero after his swim across the Hellespont was specifically a union of sexual love(Marlowe, xviii) which in throw helps to assign Gavestons speech with an erotic undertoneSweet prince, I come these, these thy amorous linesMight have enforced me to have swum from FranceAnd, like Leander, gasped upon the sand,So thou wouldst smile and take me in thy arms. (1.6-9)Another occurrence in the play where classical figures are evoked to remark upon the relationship between the king, his favourite, and their erotic hint behaviour is uttered by queen Isabella, who remarks that that their affection is even greater than Joves affection for the beautiful GanymedeLike frantic Juno will I fill the stateWith ghastly murmur of my sighs and criesFor never doted Jove on GanymedeSo much as he on cursed Gaveston. (4.178-81)Ganymede (a beautiful Trojan boy who was taken by Jove to serve as a cup-bearer on Mount Olympus because he fell in love with the boys appearance) came to act as an image for homoerotic desires and passions, and -in the early-modern period- he became to represent the foul sodomite (Orgel), epitomizing the essence of personal criminality and immorality. Surprisingly, in this play the problem does not lie in Edwards need to have a male minion for his sexual pleasures, as remarked by Mortimer senior when stating thatThe mightiest kings have had their minionsGreat Alexander loved HephaestionThe conquering Hercules for Hylas weptAnd for Patroclus stern Achilles drooped.And not kings only, but the wisest men (4. 390-396)However, Edward II and Gavestons desires describe a cultural threat because they insist that their homoeroticism not be divorced from their political and social identities (Stymeist, 237), making it possible for Gaveston to gain access to power that he should never be able to obtain, and resulting in a homoerotic desirethat enables a subversion of social hierarchy (Chedszoy, 256). Edward even places Gaveston next to him on the queens throne, underscoring the reversed, unnatural order present at court. Edwards fatal mistake, moreover, rests in his unnatural devotion to Gaveston while ignoring his peers and -more important- his homo-social obligation towards them. This becomes apparent when Edward II refuses to ransom Mortimer senior when he is captured in battle, which triggers the rebellion against Edward II by his former peers, because they fear that this failure of homosocial obligation could prefigure larger rebellion and disorder in the realm (Chedszoy, 257). Edward II neglects his peers, his queen, and his country by focussing solely on the wellbeing of, and his love for Gaveston, depicting him as effeminate and incapable to perform his duty. However, in the end Edward II reasserts some of his masculine qualities, showing the ambivalence of his sexuality as portrayed by Marlowe. Edward shows that he is able to withstand the sufferings and torture he goes through, revealing a masculine strength He hath a body able to endure / More than we can inflict (24.10-11). Furthermore, the historical accounts on Edward II explain that he had won his wife in a game of jousting. This game was a premier way of proving ones masculinity, because it is a physical and dangerous sport that required toughness, fitness, and an ability to control your horse which implicated that you were able to control yourself (Flood, Women, Men, and Sex).Last, queen Isabella -one of the few women present in Marlowes play- plays a significant role and goes through the most tooth root transformation during the play which questions gender ideologies that existed at the time, ultimately resulting in her demise. As stated previously, women were stereotypically portrayed as acting out of unruly passions and desires, and they needed to be subordinate and controlled by men (Ryan, 132). At first, queen Isabella attempts to make her marriage succeed for her, and she endeavours at being patient and dutiful wishing that that her marriage to Edward will turn out for the better and hoping that her husband will no longer reject her emotionally and sexually. Edward, in turn, does nothing to try and make their marriage work, for his only concern is about Gaveston, and he openly scorns his wife by saying to Gaveston Speak not unto her let her droop and pine (4.63), while Isabella in self-lovinglooks for love at Edwards hand (9.62). Chedgzoy observes that Marlowerepeatedly indicates that for both Isabella and Edward, an orderly reconciliation of their competing desires might be possible, so long as it also reconciles the political and personal aspirations that shape Isabellas dissatisfaction. (252)When Isabella brings the news that Gavestonshall be repealed. (4.323), a loving reconciliation between the two occur. However, this reunion is only ephemeral because Edward is unable to maintain a competent balance between his erotic desires, his love, and his obligations as a king. Isabella connects Edwards unnatural love for Gaveston directly with the countrys decline Edward, thou art one among them all / Whose looseness hath betrayed thy land to spoil / And made the channels overflow with blood. (17.10-12). Consequently, Edward pushes Isabella in the arms of Mortimer Junior. However, Isabella is not merely an innocent woman desperately craving for love, for her adulterous behaviour is suggested from the start and her political ambition and sexual transgression grows more obvious when the play progresses (Stymeist, 246). She draws on recognizing and exploiting the power she has over Mortimer that will lead to adultery and murder. (Fuller, 84) She transforms from being an obedient wif e to an adulterous, manipulative, and murdering woman, for it is Isabella, together Mortimer Junior, who conspire to Edward and Kents execution. According to Stymeist, Isabella becomes a nightmarish emblem of adultery and unnatural motherhood, allowing her son to be forcefully taken away by her paramour (246-247). Her political ambitions and her emotional incommode caused by her husband go hand in hand. Furthermore, Isabella transforms from being a scorned wife with feminine desires and passions to being a military leader showing masculine qualities. She is described by Edward as a warrior queen whose eyes, being turned to steel, / Will sooner scintillation fire than shed a tear.(20.104-105), and her union with Mortimer Junior offers her access to political power. In the end, both Edward and Isabella need to be eliminated to regain the natural order at court and in the realm, emphasized by Sara Munson Deats by stating thatMarlowes radicalism is ultimately contained by a pervasive disciplinary and admonitory ideology the roles that Edward and Isabella ultimately select take off too markedly from societys authorized subject positions, and so they must be sacrificed as scapegoats of their inflexible culture.(qtd. in stymeist, 238)All in all, in the early-modern period, men were stereotypically perceived as being the head of the family, to provide for them, and they were expected to act according to reason. Women were stereotypically perceived as being prone to emotional outbursts and acting out of desire and passion. These feminine qualities, however, can also be seen in Christopher Marlowes play Edward the Second in the male character of King Edward II. He is unable to rule his country because he is unable to control his personal feelings, causing a rebellion among his peers because he does not listen to them with regard to his personal favourite Gaveston. Edwards political inabilities are inextricably connected with his sexuality -ambivalently portrayed by M arlowe- and his inability to govern himself for the sake of his country results to his death. In addition, his wife, after emotional and sexual neglect by Edward II, undergoes a radical transformation in the play, from being a humble, obedient, and rejected wife to being described as a warrior queen whose emotional distress and political ambition causes her downfall, restoring the order with Edward III on the throne.

Models of Celebrity Endorsement Strategy

Models of Celebrity Endorsement StrategyThe selection of credit endorsers is non an easy task many scholars have essay to hit models in order to help for the right selecting of honor endorsers. Hovland et al (1953) conceptually contri besidesed one of the earliest models, which is Source Credibility Model. Afterwords, the Source Attractiveness Model (McGuire, 1985), the growth Match-Up Hypothesis (Forkan, 1980 Kamins, 1989, 1990), and the Meaning Transfer Model (McCracken, 1989) was presented through empirically researchers in turn.The Source Credibility Model and Source Attractiveness Model argon categorized under the generic name of Source Models since these two models basically show and reflect research of the Social Influence Theory/Source solution Theory, which argues that various characteristics of a perceived communication source whitethorn have a beneficial effect on message receptivity (Kelman, 1961 Meenaghan, 1995).The source credibleness model is based on research in social psychology (Hovland and Weiss, 1951-1952 Hovland, Jani, and Kelley, 1953). The Hovland version of model present that a message depends for its effectuality on the readiness and trustiness of the source (Hovland et al., 1953, p.20 Dholakia and Sternthal, 1977 Sternthal, Dholakia, and Leavitt, 1978), which means that information from a credible source (e.g. renown) can influence beliefs, opinions, attitudes, and/or behavior via a process called infixedization, which occurs when receivers accept a source influence in terms of their personal attitude and value structures (Erdogan, 1999).Expertness is defined as the extent to which a communicator is perceived to be a source of valid assertions and refers to the knowledge, experience or skills possessed by an endorser. Hovland et al (1953) and Ohanian (1991) believed that it does not really matter whether an endorser is an expert, tho all that matters is how the target auditory modality perceives the endorser. However, Aake r and Myers (1987) advocated a source/ eminence that is more(prenominal) expert to be more persuasive and to generate more intentions to buy the brand (Ohanian, 1991). Hence, expert sources influence perceptions of the harvest-festivals smell (Erdogan, 1999). Meanwhile Speck et al (1988) found that expert celebrities produced gameer recall of mathematical resolving power information than non-expert celebrities, eve though the difference was not statistically probatory. Moreover, celebrities overlord accomplishments and expertise may serve as a logical connection with the returns, and consequently make the guarantee more believable to consumers (Till and Brusler, 2000).Trustworthiness refers to the honesty, integrity and credibleness of an endorser depending on target audience perceptions (Erdogan, 1999). Advertisers capitalize on the value of trustworthiness by selecting endorsers, who be widely regarded as honest, believable, and dependable (Shimp, 1997). Smith (1973) argues that consumers put one over untrustworthy glory endorsers as questionable message sources regardless of their qualities. Friedman, et al (1978) addressed that trustworthiness is the major determinant of source credibility and then tried to discover that likability was the most important attribute of trust. Thus, they recommended advertisers to select personalities who atomic bet 18 well liked when a trustworthy glory is desired to endorse brands. However, Ohanian (1991) found that trustworthiness of a famous person was not significant related to customers intentions to buy an endorsed ethnic status could affect endorser trustworthiness and brand attitudes, because people trust endorsers who be similar to them. Their findings implied that when targeting particular ethnic groups much(prenominal) as Africans and Asians, ethnic background should be c befully evaluated.Measuring source credibility in selecting creditIt is instead reasonable to make sense that a sourc es credibility is totally subjective, but research shows that in spite of individual preferences, a high degree of obligation exists among individuals (Berscheid et al, 1971). Patzer (1983) developed the Truth-of-Consensus method to assess a sources credibility and cunningness. The method is based on the foundation that individuals judgments of showyness and credibility are naturally subjective, but these judgments are shaped through Gestalt principles of person perception rather than single characteristics. Notably, on the basis of extensive writings review and statistical tests, Ohanian (1990) constructed a tri- component famous person endorser credibility scale, (see figure) which assumes that credibility and effectiveness of fame endorsers is associated with given characteristic dimensions, even though McCracken (1989) argued that the celebrity field consists of much more just hypnotic and credible individuals.Table 2 Source Credibility ScaleAttractivenessTrustworthinessE xpertiseAttractive-UnattractiveTrustworthy-UntrustworthyExpert-Not ExpertClassy-Not ClassyDependable-UndependableExperience-InexperiencedBeautiful-UglyHonest-DishonestKnowledgeable-UnknowledgeableElegant-PlainReliable-UnreliableQualified-UnqualifiedSexy-Not SexySincere-InsincereSkilled-UnskilledSource Ohanian, R (1990) edifice and validation of a scale to measure celebrity endorsers perceived expertise, trustworthiness and attractiveness, Journal of Advertising, p39-52The Source Attractiveness ModelAdvertisers have chosen celebrity on the basis of their attractiveness to gain from dual effects of celebrity status and physical appeal (Singer, 1983). Meanwhile, research showed that physically attractive endorsers are more thriving at changing beliefs (Baker and Chrurchill, 1977 Chaiken, 1979 Debevec and Kernan, 1984) and generating purchase intentions (Friedman et al, 1976 Petroshius and Schuman, 1989 Petty and Cacioppo, 1980) than those unattractive individuals.Hence, McGuire (1985 ) conducted an empirical research to contend that the effectiveness of a message depends on similarity, familiarity and liking for an endorser. The McGuire (1985) model makes that sources that are known to, liked by, and/or similar to the consumer are attractive and, persuasive. The source attractiveness model in any case rests on social psychological research (McCracken, 1989). Meanwhile, Cohen and friendly (1972) suggested that physical attractiveness of an endorser determines the effectiveness of persuasive communication through a process called identification, which is assumed to occur when information from an attractive source is recognised as a pass of desire to identify with such endorsers.Petty and Cacioppo (1980) conducted attractiveness of endorsers in terms of a shampoo advertisement to comprehend effectiveness of advertising message types. In 1983, Petty et al replicated the earlier study in 1980. Their findings emphasize the interaction amongst involvement level a nd endorser type. beneath low-involvement conditions, the endorser type had a significant impact on attitudes towards the product even though no impact was found on behavioral intentions. With delight in to recall and recognition measures, findings indicated that word picture to celebrity endorsers increased recall of the product category only under low-involvement conditions. Besides, the endorser type manipulation revealed that celebrities had marginally significant impact on brand name recall over typical citizens.Patzer (1985 p30) stated that physical attractiveness is an information cue involves effects that are subtle, pervasive, and ineluctable produces a definite pattern of verifiable differences and transcends culture in its effects. Patzer argues that people usually inflate their own attractiveness so that attractive endorsers should be more effective than average looking endorsers.Kahle and Homer (1985) operated celebrity physical attractiveness and likability and mea sured attitude and purchase intentions on the same product Edge razors. Findings indicated that participants heart-to-heart to an attractive celebrity liked the product more than participants undecided to an unattractive celebrity. Recall for the brand was greater both in attractive and likeable celebrity conditions. However, unlikeable celebrities unexpectedly performed better on recognition measures than likeable and attractive celebrities. Meanwhile, findings proved that an attractive celebrity created more purchase intentions than unattractive celebrity, but conversely an unlikeable celebrity produced more intentions to buy the product than a likeable celebrity.Quite significantly, studies by Cabalero (1989) and Till and Brusler (1998) demonstrate that positive feelings towards advertising and products do not necessarily translate into actual behavior or purchase intentions. A possible reason for the lack of celebrity endorsers effect on intentions to purchase is that celebrit y authorization seems to work on the cognitive and affective components of attitudes rather than the behavioral components (Baker and Churchill, 1977 Fireworker and Friedman, 1977).In terms of gender impact between endorsers and target audience, Debevec and Kernan (1984) found that attractive egg-producing(prenominal) model generated more enhanced attitudes than attractive male models across both genders and particularly among males. Conversely, Cabalero et al (1989) found that males showed greater intentions to buy from male endorsers and females hold greater intentions to purchase from female endorsers. Furthermore, Baker and Churchill (1977) found a rather unexpected interaction among female models, product type and intentions to purchase products among male subjects. For instance, when the endorsed product was coffee, an unattractive female model created more intentions to buy the product than her attractive counterpart among males, whereas when it was perfume or aftershave, m ale reacted more positively to an attractive female model. However, Petroshius and Schulman (1989) found that endorsement gender had no impact on attitudes towards advertisements and no major impact on intentions to buy products. Consequently, based on above disparate and controversial arguments, thither is no consistent and coherent direction in terms of gender interactions between endorsers and target audiences to aid practitioners.In brief, it is apparent that attractive celebrity endorsers enhance attitudes and recall towards advertising and brands than unattractive celebrity endorsers, however there is no consistent agreement in relation to creating purchase intentions, even though a few studies found that celebrities can create purchase intentions.Multiple celebrity endorsementMillions of dollars are spent per annum on celebrity endorsement contracts on the basis that source effects play an important part in convincing communications. Although traditional advertising knowledge suggests the meaning of an elite product contract with the celebrity, uniqueness comes with a high price label. As a result, it is becoming familiar for companies to share stars (Elliott, 1991 Sloan and Freeman, 1988). For example, former Chicago Bulls star Michael Jordan has endorsed products for 14 companies (Lipman and Hinge, 1991), and golfer Lee Trevino has had endorsement contracts with Cadillac, Motorola Cellular Phone, Spalding Top-Flight, and La Victoria Salsa (Shatel, 1991).Multiple product endorsements set up new questions relating to our understanding of how consumers react to celebrity endorsements. If as McCracken (1989, p.311) suggests, the celebrity endorser takes on meanings that carry from ad to ad, does endorsing multiple products affect those assigned meanings such that the consumer perceives the celebrity to be less credible and less likable (Kaikati, 1987)? Do consumers have less positive approaches toward ads and brands if multiple product endorsements are i nvolved? What consequence do multiple product endorsements have on consumers buying aims? Does the number of products endorsed restrain the effect of frequent publicity to the celebrity endorser (Tripp, 1994)?Practical proof concerning how consumers react to multiple product endorsement is restricted, leaving unanswered issues in an important research ground. It is known the act of multiple product endorsements guides to true impressions intimately celebrity. Early studies (i.e. Mowen and Brown 1981 Mowen, Brown, and Schulman 1979) suggest that simply knowing that a celebrity endorses multiple products is satisfactory to decay consumers insights of endorser honesty, as well as a brand and ad evaluations.Given a limited knowledge of how the endorsement process works (McCracken, 1989), these are clearly issues with theoretical value. The current study independently manipulated the number of exposures to a celebrity in a way varied from previous studies in order to investigate the e ffects of continual exposure to the multiple product endorsers on consumer responses. The apply of actual stimulus is important since exposure to multiple product endorsers (vs. knowledge only) may result in effects different from multiple product endorsement effects. For example, attribution theory (Kelley, 1973) suggests that assumptions may result in consumers evaluating multiple product endorsers less favorable than single product endorsers. According to Kelley, observers identify an actors action to be characteristic when it happens in the presence of a unit and does not occur to its absence.In the case of endorsements, single product endorsements (even if viewed multiple times) compose characteristic actions since spokesperson endorses one brand and not different brands or products. In contrast, multiple product endorsements compose non trenchantive actions because the endorsements take a broad view across products with the celebrity constant. Limited of the number of exposu res to the endorser, this non particularity may result in consumers concluding that the nature of the spokesperson was the reason for the endorsement, not the nature of product. Although multiple product endorsements (i.e. non distinctive actions) influence perceptions of the spokespersons credibility (i.e, internal attributions), the spotlight of external attributions for single product endorsements (i.e.. distinctive actions) is not obvious. Witnesses of a spokesperson who endorses only a single product may or may not trait the endorsement to the product itself (e.g. product quality). The product represents only one cause for the endorsement. Other potential causes for the endorsement exist (e.g., popularity of the endorser endorsers ties to the product, company, or advertising agency money paid to the endorser) (Tripp, 1994). In this respect, multiple product endorsements may lead to attribute suggestions about nature of the spokesperson (e.g. traits such as greediness) and, in turn, pressure such manifestations of affect as credibility and likability (Weiner, 1985). Moreover, affect may lead to comparative preferences or be short of of preferences toward associated stimulus (Bara and Ray, 1985) such as the ad or brand.Attribution theory may be used to make clear consumers assumptions about the reasons for a product endorsers support (Folkes, 1988). Commonly, when exposed to a single endorsement, consumers attribute the support to an external cause (e.g. a financial reason). However, the frequency of an action and the actions with which it co varies form the basis of many attributions (Folkes, 1988). Since a multiple product endorser is seen repeatedly and in different contexts, examination of the relationship between the number of exposures to the celebrity, endorser likability, and credibility is a critical consideration. Berlynes (1970) two-factor substitution class suggests that increased exposure to a stimulus results in a more favorable response ini tially due to a learning factor. At some(prenominal) higher number of exposures, however, a negative response (possibly due to tedium) begins to predominate. Taken together, these two theoretical ideas suggests that the number of products endorsed and the number of exposures to the endorser may interact such that the number of products endorsed moderates the effect of number of exposures. Thus, inclusion of actual exposure allows for the first tests of any multiple product endorsement effects on both dimensions of credibility and likability beyond that due to repeated exposure to the endorser (Tripp, 1994).The product Match-Up hypothesisForkan (1980) and Kamins (1990) conducted empirical experiment to test the Product Match-up Hypothesis, which contends that messages conveyed by celebrity image and the product message should be congruent for effective advertising. The determinant pf the match between celebrity and brand depends on the degree of perceived endure between brand such as brand name and attributes and celebrity image (Misra, 1990). Advertising a product via a celebrity who has a relatively high product congruent image leads to greater advertiser and celebrity believability (Levy, 1959 Kamins and Gupta, 1994 Kotler, 1997).Importance of proper match-up between celebrities and products has been accentuate. From practitioners perspective, a senior sin president of a leading beverage company states that celebrities are an unnecessary risk unless they are very logically related to products (Watkins, 1989). An early(a) practitioner quoted by Bertrand and Todd (1992) argued that if there is a combination of an appropriate tie-in between the companys product and the celebritys persona, reputation or the line of work that the celebrity is in, advertisers can get both the fame and the tie-in working for them. Meanwhile, many studies report that consumers also expect congruity between celebrity endorsers perceived images and their endorsed products (Callco at and Phillips, 1996 Ohanian, 1991 OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997).Otherwise, Evans (1988) argued that if celebrities do not have a distinct and specific relationship to the product they endorse, the use of celebrities could produce the Vampire effect which happens when the audience remembers the celebrity, but not the product or service. Meanwhile, the absence of connection between celebrity endorsers and products endorsed may lead consumers to the belief that the celebrity has been bought to endorse the product/service (Erdogan, 1999).Significantly, the proper match-up between a celebrity and a product has been based on celebrity physical attractiveness, and the match-up hypothesis predicts that attractive celebrities are more effective when endorsing products used to enhance ones attractiveness (Kahle and Homer, 1985 Kamins, 1990). Research also identifies that characteristics of a celebrity interact positively with the nature of the product endorsed (Friedman and Friedman, 1979 Ka mins, 1990 Lynch and Schuler, 1994). Choi and Nora (2005), who used a cognitive approach that tensenesses on consumers attributions of celebrity endorsement motives, emphasized that the level of celebrity and product congruence will influence celebrity endorsement effectiveness through the process of consumer attributions of the celebritys motive for associating him or herself with the particular product and the subsequent effect of these attributions on the consumer evaluations of the endorser, the advertising, and the brand involved in the endorsement. Surprisingly, Kamins and Gupta (1994) found that the match-up between a celebrity endorser and the endorsed brand also enhances the celebrity endorsers believability and favorable attitudes (Till et al, 2006).Friedman and Friedman (1978) found that celebrity endorsers are more appropriate where product purchases involve high social and psychological risk. Meanwhile, Kamins (1989) and Kamins, et al (1989) found that celebrity endors ers were able to generate desired effects on high financial and performance risk products/services such as management consultation and computers. Conversely, Callcoat and Phillips (1996) account that consumers are generally influenced by endorsers if products are inexpensive, low-involving and few differences are perceived among available brands. As a result, these contradictory arguments lead to the conclusion that advertising is a powerful mechanism of meaning transfer that virtually any product can be made to take any meaning (McCrackens 1987 OMahony and Meenaghan, 1997).The almost studies in terms of evaluating celebrities endorser and endorsed products/brands are using consumer samples. Only one study by Miciak and Shanklin (1994) investigation considered advertising practitioners when choosing celebrity endorsers based on a petite sample including 21 agencies and 22 company practitioner. Remarkably, more recently, Erdogan et al (2001) investigated a larger sample that is the 300 largest British advertising agencies (Campaigh, 1997) to consider important celebrity characteristics from the practitioners perspective when selecting an endorser by conducting exploratory interviews and a mail survey. Their findings provide implications for both theory and practice. At the theoretical level, the research firstly shows that managers do not see celebrities as undimensional individuals such as attractive and credible when selecting celebrity endorsers, because celebrities are different unknown endorsers as they represent a variety of meanings that are drawn from the roles they assume in television, film, politics, and so on (McCracken, 1989). Secondly, managers have implicitly incorporated the findings of product match-up hypothesis research in their decision-making. On the other hand, for practitioners, as none of the advertising agencies had any written documentation regarding celebrity endorsement strategy, Erdogan et al (2001) set the criteria through provid ing a possible check add up of factors in Table 3 below, when practitioners select celebrity endorsers.However, DeSarbo and Harshman (1985) argue that neither the source credibility and attractiveness nor the match-up research is adequate in providing a heuristic for appropriate celebrity endorser selection, although the Match-Up Hypothesis extends beyond attractiveness and credibility towards a consideration and matching of the entire image of the celebrity with the endorsed brand and the target audience.The Meaning Transfer ModelMcCracken (1989) organized an empirical research evaluating effectiveness of the endorser depends upon the meaning the person brings to the endorsement process in part. McCracken (1989) and Brierley (1995) pointed out that the number and variety of the meanings contained in celebrities are very large, which includes status, class, gender, and age and personality and lifestyles types, more importantly, the heathenish meanings existing in a celebrity go be yond the person and are passed on to the products.Fortini-Campbell (1992) argues that products just like people have personalities, and claims that people consume brands with personality characteristics like their own or ones they draw a bead on to possess in celebrities. Similarly, according to Fowles (1996), advertisers rationale for hiring celebrities to endorse products is that people consume images of celebrities, and advertisers hope that people will also consume products associated with celebrities. Celebrity endorsement very is a special instance of a more general process of meaning transfer (McCracken, 1989). This process is a conventional path for the movement of cultural meaning in consumer societies through formation of celebrity image, transfer of meaning from celebrity to product, and from product to consumers. McCracken (1988) defined that meaning begins as something resident in the culturally constituted world, in the physical and social world constituted by the ca tegories and principles of the prevailing culture. Furthermore, McCracken (1989) found that several instruments facilitate this transfer. Firstly, the movement of meanings from the culturally constituted world to consumer goods is staring(a) by advertising and the fashion system. Then, the movement of meanings from consumer goods to the individual consumer is accomplished through the efforts of the consumers. Hence, meaning circulates in the consumer society.Besides, McCracken (1986) argued that advertising is one of the instruments to move meanings from culture, to consumers, to goods this movement is accomplished by the efforts of promotional agencies. Similarly, Domzal and Kerman (1992) claimed that advertising is an integral part of social systems, whose function is to communicate the culturally constructed meaning of products to consumers.As the figure 1 shows, the meaning that begins in the dramatic role of the celebrity resides in the celebrity themselves in stage 1. In stag e 2, this meaning is transferred when the celebrity enters into an advertisement with a product, and some of the meanings of the celebrity are now the meanings of the product. In the final stage, the meaning moves from the product to the consumer. Notably, celebrity endorsement makes a very particular contribution to each of these three stages in meaning transfer process.In sum, as McCracken (1989) suggested, the meaning transfer model presented is intended to demonstrate that the secret of the celebrity endorsement is largely cultural in nature, and that the study of the celebrity endorsement is improved by a cultural perspective. Consequently, advertisers should assess the culture that encompasses a celebrity to determine whether these meanings are feasible for brands/products in order to achieve effectiveness of the endorser.Definition of celebritiesCelebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a big share of a certain group of people. Whereas characteristic like attract iveness, amazing lifestyle or special skills are just examples and specific common characteristics cannot be observed, it can be say that within a analogous social group celebrities generally vary from the social standard and enjoy a high degree of public awareness. This is genuine for classic forms of celebrities, like actors (e.g. Meg Ryan, Pierce Brosnan), models (e.g. Naomi Campbell, Gisele Buendchen), sports athletes (e.g. Anna Kournikova, Michael Schumacher), entertainers (e.g. Oprah Winfrey, Conan OBrien) and pop stars (e.g. Madonna, David Bowie) but also for less obvious groups like businessmen (e.g. Donald Trump, Bill Gates) or politicians (e.g. Rudy Giuliani, Lee Kuan Yew). Celebrities come out of the closet in public in different ways. First, they appear in public when satisfying their profession, e.g. Pete Sampras, who plays tennis in front of an audience in Wimbledon. Furthermore, celebrities appear in public by attending special celebrity events, e.g. the Academy A wards, or world premieres of movies. In addition, they are present in news, fashion magazines, and tabloids, which offer fleck source information on events and the private life of celebrities through mass-media channels (e.g. Fox 5 news covering Winona Ryders trial on shoplifting, InStyle). Last but not least, celebrities work as spokespersons in advertising to endorse products and services (Kambitsis et al. 2002, Tom et al. 1992).Advantages and disadvantages of celebrity endorsement strategyPotential AdvantagesPotential DisadvantagesPreventive tactical manoeuvreAssisting productmarketing andincreased attentionOvershadow the brandPre-testing and careful planningImage polishingPublic controversyBuying insurance and setprovision clauses in contractsBrand introductionImage lurch andoverexposureExplaining what is their role andputting clause to restrictendorsements for other brandsBrand repositioningImage change and loss ofpublic recognitionExamining what life-cycle stagethe celebri ty is in and how longthis stage is likely to continueUnderpin globalcampaignsExpensiveSelecting celebrity who areappropriate for global targetaudience, not because they arehot in all market audienceSource Erdogan, B.Z (1999) Celebrity endorsement A literature review, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol 15, p295Mathur et al (1997) state a variety of reasons that firms use celebrity endorsers including that firms may feel that the life experiences of endorsers fit the advertising message, that the endorser has high appeal with the firms target consumer group, or that the endorsers universal appeal makes the advertising universal. Celebrity endorsement can bring out several positive effects. They are that advertisements incur believable (Kamins et al, 1989), message recall is enhanced (Friedman and Friedman, 1979), recognition and perception of brand names is improved and attitudes about products with low purchase involvement are abnormal (Petty et al, 1983 Till et al, 2006), positi ve attitudes about brands results (Kamins et al, 1989), and distinct personalities and appeals for products and brands are created (McCracken, 1989 Dickenson, 1996). Moreover, celebrity endorsements are believed to generate a greater likelihood of customers choosing the endorsed brand (Heath et al, 1994 Kahle and Homer, 1985 Ohanian, 1991). As a result the use of celebrity endorsement is an advertising strategy that should enhance the marginal value of advertisement expenditures and create brand equity by means of the petty(a) association of a celebrity with a brand (Keller, 1993). Meanwhile, research indicates that celebrity endorsements can result in more favorable advertisement ratings and product evaluations (Dean and Biswas, 2001). some of the most difficult aspects of global marketing to gasp are host countries cultural roadblocks such as time, space, language, relationships, power, risk, masculinity and femininity (Mooij, 1994 Hosfsted, 1984). Under this situation, celebrit y endorsements are a powerful device by which to enter foreign markets and celebrities with world-wide popularity can help companies break through many such roadblocks (Erdogan, 1999).On the other hand, there are also many potential disadvantages and hazards in utilizing celebrities as endorsers as a part of marketing communication strategy. Firstly, benefits of using celebrities can reverse markedly if they for example, suddenly change image, fall popularity, get into a situation of moral turpitude, lose credibility by over-endorsing or overshadow endorsed products (Cooper, 1984 Kaikati, 1987). Secondly, negative information about a celebrity endorser not only influences consumers perception of the celebrity, but also the endorsed product (Klebba and Unger, 1982 Till and Shimp, 1995). Thirdly, another common concern is that consumers will focus their attention on the celebrity and fail to notice the brand being promoted (Rossiter and Percy, 1987). Fourthly, celebrities who are blam ed for negative events such as accidents can have baneful influence on the products they endorse (Louie and Obermiller, 2002).Besides, Mowen and Brown (1981) argue that if a celebritys image ties in with many brands/ products, impact and indentify with each product may reduce since the relationship between the celebrity and a particular brand is not distinctive. This can not only compromise the value of the celebrity in the eyes of stars fans (Graham, 1989), but also can make consumers to think the real nature of endorsement that has less to do with the brand/product attributes, and more to do with generous requital for the celebrity, leading consumers to overt doubt about their motives, so as to cause the negative influences on consumer attitudes and purchase intentions among the multiple products endorsed by celebrities (Cooper, 1984 Tripp et al, 1994).The f

The Wind in the Willows: Kenneth Grahame and Neopaganism Essay

The Wind in the Willows Kenneth Grahame and Neopaganism The beauty of the English countryside--cultivated or wild, pastoral or primeval, it was an endless source of inspiration for eighteenth-century Romantic poets. Such notables as Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley envisioned ancient and exotic Hellenic gods in familiar, typically British settings. Douglas Bush says of Keats, For him the common sights of Hampstead Heath could suggest how poets had first conceived of fauns and dryads, of Psyche and Pan and Narcissus and Endymion ( hedonist Myth 46). Later writers, clearly influenced by the Romantic world view, would describe idealized pastoral scenes in terms of the rich meadow-grass . . . of a freshness and a greenness unsurpassable . . . . the roses so vivid, the willow-herb so riotous . . . (Grahame, Wind 911). This was the haunt of Nature personified Then suddenly the Mole felt a great idolatry fall upon him, an awe that turned his muscles to water, bowed his head, and rooted his feet to the ground. It was no panic terror-- indeed he felt wonderfully at peace and happy . . . he looked in the very eyes of the Friend and Helper saw the backward sweep of the curved horns, gleaming in the growing daylight saw the stern, aquiline nose between the kindly eyes that were looking down on them humorously, while the bearded mouth broke into a half-smile at the corners saw the ruffle muscles on the arm that lay across the broad chest, the long supple hand still holding the pan-pipes only just fallen away from the part lips saw the splendid curves of the shaggy limbs disposed in majestic ease on the sward . . . . (912 Pans appearance in The Piper at the Gates of pervade constitutes my most vivid impressio... ...dence in the Victorian Fin de Siecle . Princeton Princeton UP, 1986. Grahame, Kenneth. Pagan Papers . 5th ed. 1898. London Lane, 1914. ---. The Wind in the Willows . 1908. Classics of Childrens Literature . Ed. John W. Griffith and Charles H. Frey. 4 th ed. amphetamine Saddle River Prentice, 1996. 865-957. Grahame, Kenneth. Yesterdays Authors of Books for Children . Ed. Anne Commire. Vol. 1. Detroit Gale, 1977. 144-153. Green, Peter. Kenneth Grahame A Biography . Cleveland World, 1959. Kenneth Grahame. Childrens Literature Review . Ed. Gerard J. Senick. Vol. 5. Detroit Gale, 1983. 109-136. Sale, Roger. Kenneth Grahame. Fairy Tales and After . Cambridge Harvard UP, 1978. 165-193. Wullschlager, Jackie. Kenneth Grahame Et in Arcadia Ego. Inventing Wonderland . New York Free P, 1995. 143-174.

Everymans Journey Essay example -- Plays Literature Medieval Essays

Everymans JourneyEveryman, a short variation of around 900 lines, portrays the best surviving example of the mediaeval Drama known as the morality play, which evolved side by side with the mystery plays, although create verbally individually and not in cycles like the mystery play or ritual play. The morality play was a blueprint of drama that was developed in the late 14th atomic number 6 and flourished through the 16th century in British Literature. The characterizations used in the works were typically based on the personifications of good and evil engaged in a struggle everywhere the morality of the soul.Everyman is every mans journey to the spiritual unknown and the eventual reflection of ones positive and negative actions in life, which regularize the offering of everlasting redemption. The play uses the literary technique of allegory to present the reader or audience a representation of mans normal confrontation with the moral struggle that Christianitys beliefs presen t to each individual. The traditional religious beliefs or moral structures are emphasized in parable form symbolizing life and investigating the qualities within every man, whether they be good or bad. Everyman challenges the means to the destined end of unrighteous and the failure of mans nurturing of the spiritually cleansing good deeds, which in essence pulls mans fate from the good to the bad or vice versa.The play has been speculated to be a written product of an unknown author from around the end of the 15th century, however, its origin is still debatable among literary scholars because of the plays similarities to other written works, orality characteristics, noetic economy and universality with the European socio-religious culture. According to literary scholars... ...s. This particular piece is a valuable step toward textuality. It test the barriers set by orality and attempts to plump out the act of story telling by incorporating traits, which were further developed wit h the increase of textuality and later printing. For example, the development of characterization and the use of narration progression or triune narration bring forth-new avenues of psychological roundness of characters in junction with traditional heavy and flat universal appeal. The play Everyman has established itself in the progression of lit and the word by its incorporation of hearing dominance, rhyme scheme progression (memory), characterization, and performance based manuscript production. Everyman is for everyman that wants to understand where the word has come from (orality) and how it has come to the floor of print existence (textuality).